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5Formalization of data collection and processing of marketing information
5.1 Characteristics of scales used in marketing measurements
To collect data, questionnaires (questionnaires) are developed. Information to fill them out is collected by taking measurements.
Under measurement refers to the determination of a quantitative measure or density of a certain characteristic (property) of interest to the researcher.
The characteristics of certain objects are measured (consumers, product brands, stores, advertising, etc.). Once a characteristic has been determined for a selected object, the object is said to have been measured against that characteristic. Objective properties (age, income, amount of beer drunk, etc.) are easier to measure than subjective ones (feelings, tastes, habits, relationships, etc.). In the latter case, the respondent must translate his ratings into a density scale (some numerical system) that the researcher must develop.
Measurements can be taken using various scales. Highlight four scale characteristics.
1Description involves the use of a single descriptor, or identifier, for each gradation in the scale.
For example, “yes” or “no”; “agree” or “disagree”; age of respondents.
2Order characterizes the relative size of the descriptors (“greater than,” “less than,” “equal to”). Not all scales have order characteristics.
For example, one cannot say more or less about “buyer” versus “non-buyer.”
3 Characteristics of the scale such as distance, is used when the absolute difference between descriptors is known, which can be expressed in quantitative units.
A respondent who bought three packs of cigarettes bought two more packs compared to a respondent who bought only one pack. “Distance” in this case is equal to two.
It should be noted that when “distance” exists, “order” also exists. A respondent who bought three packs of cigarettes bought “more” than a respondent who bought only two packs.
4 The scale is considered to have starting point if it has a single origin or zero point.
For example, the age scale has a true zero point. However, not all scales have a zero point for the properties being measured. Often they only have an arbitrary neutral point. For example, answering a question about the preference of a certain brand of car, the respondent said that he had no opinion. The gradation “I have no opinion” does not characterize the true zero level of his opinion.
Each subsequent characteristic of the scale is built on the previous characteristic. Thus, "description" is the most basic characteristic, which is inherent in any scale. If a scale has "distance", it also has "order" and "description".
Highlight four levels of measurement, determining the type of measurement scale. Their relative characteristics are given in Table 39.
Table 39 – Characteristics of scales of various types
1 Name scale has only the characteristic of description; it assigns only its name to the described object; no quantitative characteristics are used.
Objects of measurement fall into many mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories. The naming scale establishes relations of equality between objects that are combined into one category. Each category is given a name, the numerical designation of which is an element of the scale. Obviously, measurement at this level is always possible. “Yes”, “No” and “Agree”, “Disagree” are examples of gradations of such scales.
Table 40 provides examples of questions formulated both in the name scale and in other scales.
Table 40 - Examples of questions formulated in various measurement scales
B) Interval scale.
1) Please rank each product brand in terms of its quality:
2) Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements by circling one of the numbers:
3) Please rank the Pontiac Trans-Am according to the following characteristics:
D) Relationship scale.
1) Please indicate your age _____ years.
2) Approximately indicate how many times over the last month you made purchases in a store on duty in the time interval from 20 to 23 hours.
3) What is the likelihood that when drawing up a will you will seek the help of a lawyer ___________ percent.
2 Order scale allows you to rank respondents or their answers. It has the properties of a nominal scale combined with an order relation. In order for scale ratings to differ from numbers in the ordinary sense, they are called ranks at the ordinal level.
For example, the frequency of purchasing a certain product (once a week, once a month). However, such a scale only indicates the relative difference between the objects being measured.
Often the supposed clear distinction between assessments is not observed and respondents cannot unambiguously choose one answer or another, i.e. some adjacent gradations of answers overlap each other. This scale is called semi-ordered; it lies between the scales of names and order.
3 Interval scale It also has the characteristic of the distance between individual scale gradations, measured using a specific unit of measurement, i.e. quantitative information is used.
For example, if store clerks are rated on a scale of extremely friendly, very friendly, somewhat friendly, somewhat unfriendly, very unfriendly, extremely unfriendly, then it is usually assumed that the distances between the individual gradations are the same.
4 Relationship scale is the only scale that has a zero point, so quantitative comparisons of the results obtained can be made. This addition allows us to talk about the ratio (proportion) a: b for scale values a and b. For example, a respondent may be 2.5 times older, spend three times more money, or fly twice as often as another respondent. It must be borne in mind that the results obtained can always be translated into a simpler scale, but never vice versa. For example, the gradations “strongly disagree” and “somewhat disagree” (interval scale) can easily be transferred to the “disagree” category of the naming scale.
5.2 Marketing information analysis system
The main purpose of the information analysis system is to process the available data, which allows one to draw appropriate conclusions within the framework of the problem under study and outline the main ways to resolve it. This system is a set of modern economic-mathematical and economic-statistical methods of information processing. Since the diversity of these techniques is covered in sufficient detail in the specialized literature, let us consider from the most general positions the most significant ones for marketing practice.
Regression analysis– a statistical method of data analysis to determine the dependence of one variable on one (simple regression) or several (multivariate regression) independent variables. The traditional area of use of this method can be considered the determination of the correlation between sales volumes of a specific product in a certain market segment with factors such as prices, advertising methods, level of service, etc.
Dispersion method used to confirm or refute the influence of the factor being studied on certain economic indicators (for example, advertising on sales volume).
Variational analysis is designed to test whether changes in independent variables have a significant effect on dependent variables.
By using discriminant analysis it is possible to separate predefined groups of objects through a combination of many independent variables and thus explain differences between groups. In addition, the method makes it possible to assign a new object to a group based on its characteristics.
Factor analysis used to study the relationship between variables in order to reduce the number of influencing factors to the most significant ones. One of the areas of its application in marketing is market segmentation.
Table 41 - Typical forecasting methods
At the same time, from a large number of variables that describe the needs of potential consumers of a product, it is necessary to select the main ones - those that are fundamental for the formation of segments.
Cluster analysis allows you to combine variables or objects into groups (or so-called clusters) in such a way that the differences between the objects that make up one cluster are less than their differences from other clusters. The main area of application of this method in marketing is market segmentation.
Multidimensional scaling allows you to obtain a spatial display of the relationships that exist between objects.
Along with information analysis, forecasting methods are also widely used, which significantly facilitate the work of managers and specialists of a tourism enterprise in developing strategies and (or) making current management decisions.
The decision to choose a forecasting method is made taking into account the following factors:
– time allotted for preparing the forecast;
– required level of forecast accuracy;
– the nature of the data required to develop the forecast;
– time range of forecasting (the period for which the forecast is given).
A brief description of typical forecasting methods is presented in Table 41.
They are also used for forecasting intuitive-creative methods of idea generation. The most famous of them include brainstorming and synectics.
Brainstorming method consists in the uncontrolled generation and spontaneous interweaving of ideas by participants in a group discussion of a problem. On this basis, chains of associations arise that can lead to an unexpected solution to the problem. To successfully use this method, a number of conditions must be met:
1) from 7 to 12 people must take part in the meeting;
2) the optimal duration of the meeting is from 15 to 30 minutes;
3) the number of proposals is more important than their quality;
5) criticism in any form is prohibited; logic, experience, arguments “against” only get in the way;
6) the hierarchical level of the participants should not differ too much, otherwise psychological barriers may arise that interfere with communication and the building of associations.
Ideas received during the meeting are recorded and then evaluated. The brainstorming method has many implementation options. One of them is method "6.3.5". Its essence is that 6 specialists in 5 minutes offer 3 forecast options regarding the development of the market and the promotion of products to it. This method is extremely important for obtaining random results.
Employees write their answers on special forms distributed for this purpose. Five minutes later, the next 6 employees are invited for the same procedure. Thus, in half an hour the company receives 108 new proposals! The 6.3.5 method is especially fruitful for finding ideas for a new product. Hundreds and thousands of proposals accumulated over short periods of time are then carefully analyzed and discussed.
Essence Brainstorming method is as follows.
1) Each manager recruits a team of 15 managers of the same management level for discussion.
2) The general manager explains a situation that needs their expertise, such as increasing the firm's sales volume. A selected team of managers expresses their opinion on the problem posed to them.
3) Another manager also recruits a team that expresses its doubts and negative opinions about the assessments and proposals put forward by the first team.
By Gordon's method Participants in a brainstorming session should not be given a specific task, such as, for example, “What needs to be done to increase sales of our company’s services?” It is only necessary to outline the general side of the problem. In our example, this can be formulated as follows: “What were previously used and are currently being used to increase sales volumes of our company’s services?” After discussing this problem, specialist experts draw specific conclusions on a specific task.
Group discussion method, as another type of brainstorming, it involves the participation of people who have little or no knowledge of the problem. Anyone can take part in the group discussion. As a result of such a discussion, you can get new interesting information, many non-standard and original ideas. After some time, invited specialists get acquainted with the ideas put forward and select those that can be implemented. It is considered normal for experts to reject 90% of the ideas proposed by group discussion participants.
Synectics is considered an intuitive and creative forecasting method with high creative potential.
Its basic principle is the gradual alienation original problem, which is achieved by constructing analogies with other areas of life. After multi-stage analogies there is a quick return to the starting point.
5.3 Practical tasks for section 5
Task No. 1
Identify the type of scale used in each of the following questions. Justify your answer:
a) what time of year do you usually plan your vacation?
b) total income of your family?_________________
c) What are your three favorite brands of shampoo? Rate them from 1 to 3 according to your preferences, assigning 1 as your most preferred:
– Pantene Pro-V;
d) how much time do you spend on the road from home to university every day:
– less than 5 minutes;
– 5-15 minutes;
– 16-20 minutes;
– 21-30 min.;
- 30 min. and more;
e) how satisfied are you with the Marketing and Advertising magazine:
- very satisfied;
- satisfied;
- both satisfied and dissatisfied;
– dissatisfied;
- very displeased;
f) how many cigarettes do you smoke per day on average?
– more than one pack;
– from half a pack to one whole;
– less than half a pack;
g) your level of education:
– unfinished secondary;
– completed secondary;
– unfinished higher education;
- completed higher education.
Task No. 2
Below is an analysis for each of the preceding questions. Is the analysis used appropriate for the type of measurement scale in each case?
A. About 50% of the sample go on vacation in the fall, 25% in the spring, and the remaining 25% in the winter. We can conclude that in the fall there are twice as many vacationers as in the spring and winter seasons.
B. The average total income of one family member is 15 thousand rubles. Respondents with a total income of less than 15 thousand rubles. 67%, with an income of more than 15 thousand rubles. – 33%.
B. Pantene Pro-V is the most preferred brand. Its average preference value is 3.52.
D. The median value of all answer options about the time spent traveling from home to the university is 8.5 minutes. Three times more respondents spend less than 5 minutes on the road. compared to the number of those who spend 16-20 minutes.
D. The average satisfaction score is 4.5, which appears to indicate the high level of satisfaction received by the readers of Marketing and Advertising magazine.
E. 10% of respondents smoke less than half a pack of cigarettes per day, while 90% of respondents smoke more than one pack per day.
G. The answers show that 40% of respondents have incomplete secondary education, 25% graduated from high school, 20% have incomplete higher education and 15% graduated from higher educational institutions.
Task No. 3
a) which of the following newspapers do you read regularly:
- “Bryansk worker”;
- "TVNZ";
– “Economic Newspaper”;
b) how often do you purchase products from Dairy Plant OJSC:
c) you agree that the government should impose import restrictions on:
- I certainly agree;
- agree;
– neither against nor for;
– I don’t agree;
– I certainly don’t agree;
d) how often do you purchase Cif detergent:
- once a week;
- once in two weeks;
– once every three weeks;
- once a month;
d) what social group do you belong to?
- worker;
– employee;
– manager;
– other;
f) where do you usually buy office supplies?
g) when you watch TV, do you watch advertisements?
i) which brand of tea are you most familiar with:
j) what do you think, should the Russian government, in the context of the global financial crisis, continue the current policy of cutting taxes and cutting government spending:
k) how often during the week do you exercise:
- every day;
– 5-6 times a week;
– 2-4 times a week;
- once a week;
a) which of the following reasons is most important for you when choosing a TV:
– service in the store;
- trademark;
– level of defects;
- guarantees;
b) indicate your level of education:
– unfinished secondary;
- high school;
– secondary technical;
– unfinished higher education;
– completed higher education;
– higher professional;
c) what is your average monthly income:
– up to 5000 rub.;
– 5001-10,000 rub.;
– 10,001-20,000 rubles;
– 20,001-50,000 rubles;
– above RUB 50,001;
d) your average monthly income?
- high;
- average;
– minimal.
Task No. 5
Select at least five brands from the same product line from well-known manufacturers, for example, shampoo, cars, chocolate, etc. List 5-10 parameters (properties, qualities) by which these products can be assessed, then:
Table 42 – Evaluation results on a constant sum scale
c) modify table 43, assigning a rank to each parameter in accordance with its significance, ranging from 0 (least preferable) to 1 (most preferable), summarize the results in table 43, draw a conclusion, compare with the results of previous tasks;
Table 43 – Evaluation results on a constant sum scale taking into account rank
d) rate these products on a modified Likert scale using seven rating options: 7 – wonderful; 6 – very good; 5 – good; 4 – mediocre; 3 – bad; 2 – very bad; 1 – worthless (table 44);
Table 44 – Assessment results using a modified Likert scale
Table 45 - Comparison of goods by parameter a (b, c...)
Determine the number of cases of preference for each product over all other products:
where f is the total number of preferences for product S i relative to other products (determined by counting the number of “units” in the corresponding line in all tables);
n – number of goods;
m – number of parameters by which the assessment is carried out;
f ks – frequency (score) of choosing product S i in preference to product S.
Calculate the generalized weight for each product:
where W si is the generalized weight of goods S i in fractions of a unit ( 
);
J – total number of ratings received:
Multiply the generalized weights by 100 and compare them with the results of previous assignments.
Task No. 6
Select five brands from different manufacturers of any product group (for example, dairy products, chocolate, coffee, etc.). Write questions about this range of brands under study using nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Answer the questions provided. Which ones are more difficult to answer and why?
Task No. 7
Students need to break into groups of three to four people. Using the method of paired comparisons, each member of the group needs to evaluate five to six television commercials according to criteria such as the originality of the author's idea, memorability, and motivating the consumer to purchase. Then it is necessary to assess the degree of consistency of opinions, calculate the integral rating of the videos and determine the best one.
Task No. 8
Using the paired comparison method on behalf of three experts, evaluate five brands of tea according to such criteria as aroma, richness, taste, and price. In accordance with their opinion, calculate the integral rating of the tea and determine the best one.
Task No. 9
Develop a semantic differential scale to measure the image of two universities in the city. Present your scale to a pilot sample of 20 students. Based on your research, answer the question: Which university has a more favorable image? What other methods can be used to evaluate the image of universities?
Task No. 10
Develop a Likert scale to measure the image of two banks in your city. Present this scale to a pilot sample of 20 students. Based on your research, answer the question: which bank has a more favorable image?
Task No. 11
Develop a Stapel scale to measure the image of two city retail chains. Present this scale to a pilot sample of 20 students. Based on your research, answer the question: Which chain has a more favorable image?
Task No. 12
Develop a questionnaire to determine how students choose their vacation destination. Pre-test the questionnaire by presenting it to 10 students through personal interviews. How would you modify the questionnaire after the pretest?
Task No. 13
IN In December 2008, a unique electronic registrar appeared in one of the clinics in city A, which allows patients to make an appointment at a convenient time, bypassing the usual system: getting up at six in the morning - queue - coupon. Externally, the electronic register, or information kiosk, is similar to a regular ATM. It is located on the first floor of the clinic, right at the entrance. Anyone can enter their health insurance number and see the opening hours of a medical institution and/or a specific specialist on the screen, as well as make an appointment. Women also have access to information about reception hours at the antenatal clinic located at the other end of the city, as well as about the work schedules of pediatricians at the children's clinic. A professional monitors what is happening on the screen at the reception. Since the kiosk operates online, the requested information in the register is recorded, analyzed and systematized. The patient’s outpatient card is sent to the office of the doctor he needs, and information about this is added to the database 1
Privalenko O. I’ll make an appointment with the doctor myself // Arguments and facts. – 2008. – No. 51(376).
What data collection method is used in this situation? How can the information obtained be used? How can it improve the efficiency of the clinic?
Task No. 14
The company is a specialized retail store “Coffee Paradise”. The purpose of the marketing research is to understand how coffee consumption will change in the next two years. The company plans to use the following methods:
– focus groups with consumers – real and potential;
– in-depth interviews and a mass survey of coffee lovers and non-coffee drinkers, assessment of factors influencing their choice.
The company wants to obtain information about market capacity and its dynamics; motivation of coffee consumers; description of situations of purchase and consumption of coffee, assessment of demand by segment, its price elasticity. It is planned that the result of the study will be models of consumer behavior; forecast for 2-4 years; clarification of brand positioning, justification of pricing strategy; formation of the concept of the brand promotion program. You work as a marketer for a company, and you are tasked with developing forms to collect information.
Task No. 15
To the direct question “Do you have a DVD player?” 72% of positive responses were given. And to the indirect question “Are you going to buy a DVD player in the near future?” 57% of respondents said that they already have a player. However, there were much fewer positive answers than with the first version of the question. Explain the disadvantages of direct and advantages of indirect surveys.
Task No. 16
Let's assume that you work for a marketing agency that has given you the task of developing a form for monitoring the service personnel of one of the plastic window companies. In other words, you and your colleagues need to visit the company under the guise of an ordinary client, ask typical “buying” questions based on the “legend” agreed upon with the customer, and maybe even buy something. Based on the results of the visit outside the company, you must fill out a detailed questionnaire. The questionnaire may contain from 15 to 35 parameters on which company personnel must be assessed. Compose a questionnaire using the following parameters: compliance with corporate appearance standards (dress code); knowledge of the products sold, their consumer properties and features; product presentation skills; customer service skills (or active sales and business communication skills); implementation of current marketing campaigns (product of the day, sale of discount cards, promotion of new brands, etc.). If necessary, add new parameters to the questionnaire. Also answer the questions:
1. What is the name of this research method?
2. How should the visit script be structured? Should it be prescribed or should the mystery shopper improvise?
3. How to prepare Mystery Shopping? To what extent should the mystery shopper be aware of the standards themselves?
4. What can be measured and investigated using mystery shopping? Sellers behavior? Availability of advertising and other materials? Condition of the premises?
5. Is an audio or video recording of the visit necessary and why? How to do it? How to use it?
6. Do the audited personnel need to be informed about inspections? If yes, to what extent?
7. Is it possible to fire an employee based on the results of the visit?
8. How to check competitors?
9. Who can work as a mystery shopper?
Task No. 17
Suppose you are an employee of the marketing department of Bryankonfi OJSC, who is tasked with conducting marketing research on the market for a new product, “Gold Collection series candies.” The purpose and method of the study are presented in Table 46.
Table 46 – Study plan
It is necessary to develop a questionnaire for the study.
Task No. 18
Fill in the blanks in table 47.
Table 47 – Marketing research product positioning
Task No. 19
– Do you often go to cinemas?
– Approximately how much money do you spend on food?
– How many times did you skip classes at university last year?
– What types of cheese have you purchased over the past week? Reframe them as multiple-choice or dichotomous questions if you think that would be better.
Task No. 20
1) determine what information is needed and how it can be collected most effectively;
2) develop a questionnaire for conducting a personal interview in accordance with the specified research objective;
3) write individual questions on a piece of paper and determine the response form for each question (i.e., free, multiple choice, dichotomous, scale);
4) provide arguments to justify a specific form of answer;
5) decide on the sequence of questions;
6) pre-test on a sample of five students and record the test results;
7) make the necessary changes to the questionnaire.
Situation A. Suppose you are conducting a study to study the opinions of city residents about television advertising of beer.
Situation B: The purpose of this study is to determine whether the presence of a well-known brand is important when women choose clothes for their children.
Task No. 21
Let's assume you are a marketer for a large retail chain, tasked with assessing the quality of retail service to the public in the retail chain's stores. Using Figure 20, which shows the elements of the quality of retail service to the population, develop a questionnaire to survey buyers of the retail chain.
Figure 20 – Main elements of the quality of trade services to the population 2
Senina N. A. Marketing of a trading enterprise (for example retail Moscow): Abstract. dis. ... Ph.D. -M.: State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "VZFEI", 2007. -P. 18.
Task No. 22
The following are situations for which it is necessary:
1) list the variables that could relate to the problem being solved;
2) list observations that can illuminate each of these variables;
3) develop a structured observation form;
4) conduct several observations and write a report on the research.
Situation A: The purpose of the study is to determine how children influence adults' sugar cookie purchasing behavior.
Situation B. The purpose of the study is to determine the time it takes to think at coffee machines located in the university lobby and cafeterias, and to identify factors affecting this time.
Instructions
This part of the study determines the importance of each department store to you by rating them using a series of scales limited by opposing adjectives. Using an "X" mark, mark the place on the scale between the opposite adjectives that best describes your opinion of the store.
Please mark each scale without missing any.
Form
Sears This:
Powerful:-:-:-:-:X:-:-: Weak
Unreliable:-:-:-:-:-:X:-: Reliable
Modern:-:-:-:-:-:-:X: Old-fashioned
Cold:-:-:-:-:-:X:-: Warm
Caring:-:H:-:-:-:-:-: Indifferent
Respondents make marks on the scale in those places that best reflect their opinion about the object being assessed [I]. Thus, in our example Sears was rated as weak, reliable, very old-fashioned, warm and caring. A negative adjective or phrase can appear on either the right or left of the scale. This allows us to control the tendency of some respondents, who are too positive or negative about the object in question, to put marks only on the right or left side without reading the descriptions of the items. Previously, the author described methods for selecting scale categories and constructing a semantic differential scale. Based on this material, the author developed a semantic differential scale for measuring ideas about people and products (Box 9.2. “Marketing Research Practice”).
Individual semantic differential items can take values from -3 to +3 or from 1 to 7. The resulting data is usually analyzed using profile analysis, where mean or median values are calculated for each rating scale and then compared using graphing or statistical analysis. This helps determine common features differences and similarities of objects. To assess differences between segments of respondents, the researcher compares the average responses of different segments. Although the average value is often used as a final value, the issue of treating the resulting data as interval values remains controversial. On the other hand, in cases where the researcher needs to make an overall comparison of items, such as when determining store preferences, the scores on the individual items are summed to obtain an overall item score.
Box 9.2. Marketing Research Practice
Semantic differential scale for measuring beliefs about people and products
1. Rough:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Refined
2. Admiring:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Calm
3. Inconvenient:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Comfortable
4. Dominant:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Secondary
5. Thrifty:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Wasteful
6. Pleasant:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unpleasant
7. Modern:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Not modern
8. Organized:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unorganized
9. Rational:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Emotional
10. Early:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Mature
11. Formal:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Informal
12. Conservative:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Liberal
13. Complex:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Simple
14. Colorless:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Colorful
15. Modest:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Vain
The versatility of the semantic differential scale has made it very popular in marketing research. It is widely used to compare brands, products, company images, and is used to develop advertising and promotion strategies, as well as to develop new types of products. There are several types of main scale.
Semantic differential(English) semantic differential) - a method of constructing individual or group semantic spaces(English) semantic space). Object coordinates in the semantic space are his assessments on a number of bipolar graded (three-, five-, seven-point) rating scales (English. rate scale), the opposite poles of which are specified using verbal antonyms. These scales were selected from a variety of trial scales using factor analysis methods.
The semantic differential method was introduced into psychological research by Charles Osgood. Charles E. Osgood) in 1952. Charles Osgood justified the use of three basic seven-point rating scales:
Semantic differential(in a narrow sense) is also called a bipolar graded rating scale used in the semantic differential method.
Calculation of the distance indicator between features in the semantic differential.
S.D. As a method of self-report, in which the researcher receives the information he needs from the words of the respondent himself, the following characteristics are characteristic: 1) Closedness (limitedness) - assessing the value of a characteristic on a given scale; space the scale between opposite values is perceived by the subject as a continuum of gradations of the severity of the trait. 2) Directionality ( controllability) - directed associations about given objects, assessed by respondents on a number of scales, representing those characteristics of the object of study that are of interest to the sociologist and are considered important by him for the study of a particular problem. 3) Assessment - procedure S.D. includes the respondent as the subject of assessment, the object of assessment and the scale as an assessment tool. 4) Scaling- S.D. method involves obtaining information about the expression of certain qualities in an object, specified by a set of scales. 5) Projection is the basis of the S.D. method. lies the assumption that for the respondent the object being assessed acquires significance not only because of its objective content, but also because of reasons, associated with the personal attitude the respondent attaches to the object of research. 6) Mass scale - the possibility of using the method for mass surveys. 7) Standardization - respondents are presented with the same instructions, assessment objects and scales.
9.Possibilities and limits of application of projective technology
Retrospective conversations about the past, and conversations about creative thoughts. Projective techniques are aimed at measuring personality traits and intelligence. They have a number of features that make them significantly different from standardized methods, namely:
· features of the stimulus material; A distinctive feature of the stimulus material of projective techniques is its ambiguity, uncertainty, and lack of structure, which is a necessary condition for the implementation of the principle of projection. In the process of interaction of the individual with the stimulus material, its structuring occurs, during which the individual projects the features of his inner world: needs, conflicts, anxiety, etc.
· features of the task assigned to the respondent; A relatively unstructured task that allows for an unlimited variety of possible answers is one of the main features of projective techniques. Testing using projective techniques is disguised testing, since the respondent cannot guess what exactly in his answer is the subject of interpretation by the experimenter. Projective methods are less susceptible to falsification than questionnaires based on information about the individual.
· features of processing and interpretation of results. There is a problem of standardization of projective techniques. Some methods do not contain a mathematical apparatus for objective processing of the results obtained and do not contain standards. These methods are primarily characterized by a qualitative approach to personality research, and not a quantitative one, like psychometric tests. And therefore, adequate methods for checking their reliability and giving them validity have not yet been developed. Some techniques have developed parallel forms (Holtzman Inkblot Method) as an example of solving the reliability problem. There are approaches to solving the problem of the validity of projective techniques. For a more accurate study, data obtained using projective techniques should be correlated with data obtained using other methods.
Focus group procedure
The main parameters of a focus group study, such as the number of participants, their social characteristics, the number of groups, etc., are determined by two factors: the general methodological requirements for conducting group interviews and the requirements arising from the objectives of the study. Let's start with the first and then move on to the second.
Number of participants
This issue is considered well-developed and has a long history. The key formula, from which subsequent authors have not deviated in principle, was stated by R. Merton and his co-authors: “The size of the group should obviously be determined by two considerations. It should not be so large that it is unmanageable or prevents adequate participation from the majority of members, and it should not be so small that it does not provide substantially greater coverage than an interview with a single person. Experience has shown that these requirements are best met by a group size of 10-12 people. Whatever the purpose, the group should not be enlarged to such an extent that the majority of its members constitute only an audience for the few who have an opportunity to speak.”
It seems that over the past decades, researchers' opinions about the optimal number of participants have shown a downward trend. Today, the most appropriate group size is determined by most authors to be 8-10 people [b3, b5, etc.]. This may not be the limit, since some authors advocate further reducing the number of participants to 6-8 people [b8, 262 and etc.]. Organizing a discussion with 12 participants today is considered by many researchers as overkill, since holding groups with such a number of respondents, although possible, is difficult, and the moderator is no longer able to involve everyone in the discussion. In two short hours, respondents with such a number cannot get used to interacting with so many new acquaintances; Equally, the moderator cannot give everyone due attention. This is even more true for groups with even larger numbers of participants.
It should be noted that the question of the optimal size of groups still remains controversial. His decision largely depends on the personal style and qualifications of the moderator. Thus, D. Templeton insists on 10-12 respondents, but when reading her work, one gets the feeling that as a moderator she has an outstanding and therefore rare talent, and this makes it difficult to replicate her experience. We will return to the issue of correlating the number of respondents and the personal style of work of moderators in subsequent chapters.
The minimum number of participants at which the specific effects of group discussion can still somehow manifest themselves, according to various authors, is 4-5 people. A typical opinion on this issue goes like this:
"A group interview can be conducted with a minimum number of five participants, as this number can still somewhat adequately represent the range of opinions and create overall interaction. If there are fewer than five people in the group, we try to collect information as much as possible but in principle we try to refuse to hold such groups" [b3].
Describing the balance of factors that determine optimal size groups within the above limits, it should first of all be noted that the properties of groups very much depend on its size, and a difference of 1-2 people has a very noticeable effect on their dynamics.
An increase in the number of participants over 10-12 people leads, as already mentioned, to a decrease in controllability, which manifests itself mainly in two aspects: either a passive audience arises, and the exchange of remarks begins to take place between a small number of people who have seized the initiative, or a general discussion breaks up into several private ones, conducted between neighbors at the table. In the first case, a sampling shift occurs because the opinion of the “silent majority” turns out to be unrepresented, and the totality of active individuals may represent a very specific contingent. In the second case, uncontrolled private discussions quickly move away from the given topic. and recording the discussion becomes technically impossible.
The growth of anarchy, characteristic of large groups, can to some extent be restrained by increasing the rigidity of discussion management and the introduction of stricter rules of discussion. In this case, the number of participants can be increased, perhaps even to 15-20 people [Merton], but the group nature of the discussion is inevitably lost, i.e. a group interview turns into a series of individual and, moreover, highly structured ones (the latter is due to the very small amount of time allocated to each respondent). Apparently, such interviews can no longer be called focus groups.
The process by which group discussion becomes less effective as the number of participants decreases is more difficult to describe. The decrease in the number of opinions presented, associated with a decrease in the number of respondents, cannot be considered the main argument, since the increase in number has a natural limit. From our point of view, two factors are most important. First, respondents must feel a certain lack of time available for speaking. An acute lack of time demoralizes, but a moderate one mobilizes, i.e. requires you to speak concisely and only to the point, and not indulge in lengthy arguments. In addition, the tension of the time budget felt by everyone helps the moderator to stop those who would like to usurp the right to speak. Secondly, a decrease in the number of respondents reduces the number of opinions presented, and this leads to the impoverishment of the subject of discussion and increases the likelihood that it will take some atypical path that inadequately models the dynamics of opinions in society. Apparently, it is these effects that T. Trinbaum has in mind, who points out that participants in small groups tend to unconsciously act as experts, rather than as average consumers who report their personal experience. This situation is unconstructive, because the average consumer cannot fulfill the role of expert. D. Morgan adds to this that small groups are very sensitive to the dynamics of interactions between participants, since in such groups the action of individually colored personal relationships (likes, dislikes, etc.) is formed faster and has a much stronger effect than in large ones.
The most appropriate number of group participants depends on the level of experience of the moderator and, in part, on the moderator's personal style. An inexperienced moderator should not focus on the maximum number of participants. From our point of view, the optimal size of a focus group for a novice moderator is 7 people. This number is optimal in terms of ease of discussion management. With 8-10 participants, the difficulties increase, but the beneficial effect that can be obtained by an experienced moderator also increases. With 6 or fewer participants, difficulties of a different kind increase, including lengthy monologues, deviations from the topic, fading of the discussion, etc., which the moderator also needs to cope with,
